Ottoman rule

Ottoman rule

Main article: Ottoman Albania

Ottoman supremacy in the west Balkan region began in 1385 with the Battle of Savra. On the conquered part of Albania, which territory stretched between Mat River on the north andÇameria to the south, Ottoman Empire established the Sanjak of Albania ^[36] and in 1419 Gjirokastra became the county town of the Sanjak of Albania.^[37] Beginning in the late-14th century, the Ottomans expanded their empire from Anatolia to the Balkans (Rumelia). By the 15th century, the Ottomans ruled most of the Balkan Peninsula. Their rule in part of Albaniawas briefly interrupted in the 15th century, when George Kastrioti Skanderbeg, an Albanian who had served as an Ottoman military officer, renounced Ottoman service, allied with some Albanian chiefs and fought off Turkish rule from 1443-1478. Albania was fully re-occupied by the Ottomans in 1478.

Portrait of Skanderbeg, fought against the Ottoman Empire in the mid-15th century.

[edit]Ottoman-Albanian wars

Many Albanians had been recruited into the Janissary, including the feudal heir George Kastrioti who was renamed Skanderbeg (Iskandar Bey) by his Turkish trainers at Edirne. After some Ottoman defeats at the hands of the Serbs, Skanderbeg deserted and began a rebellion against theOttoman Empire.^[38]

After deserting, Skanderbeg re-converted to Roman Catholicism and declared a holy war against the Ottoman Empire,^[38] which he led from 1443 to 1468. Under a red flag bearing Skanderbeg's heraldic emblem, an Albanian force held off Ottoman campaigns for twenty-five years and overcame sieges of Krujë led by the forces of the Ottoman sultans Murad II and Mehmed II.

However, Skanderbeg was unable to receive any of the help which had been promised him by the popes. He died in 1468, leaving no worthy successor. After his death the rebellion continued, but without its former success. The loyalties and alliances created and nurtured by Skanderbeg faltered and fell apart and the Ottomans reconquered the territory of Albania in 1478. Shortly after the fall of Kruje's castle, some Albanians fled to neighboring Italy, giving rise to the modern Arbëreshë communities.

[edit]Late Ottoman period

Durrës in 1573

Janissary Muskets.

Upon the Ottomans' return in 1478, a large number of Albanians fled to Italy, Greece and Egypt and maintained their Arbëresh identity. Many Albanians won fame and fortune as soldiers, administrators, and merchants in far-flung parts of the Empire. As the centuries passed, however, Ottoman rulers lost the capacity to command the loyalty of local pashas, which threatened stability in the region. The Ottoman rulers of the 19th century struggled to shore up central authority, introducing reforms aimed at harnessing unruly pashas and checking the spread of nationalist ideas. Albaniawould be a part of the Ottoman Empire until the early 20th century.

The Ottoman period that followed was characterized by a change in the landscape through a gradual modification of the settlements with the introduction of bazaars, military garrisons and mosques in many Albanian regions. Part of the Albanian population gradually converted to Islam, with many joining the Sufi Order of the Bektashi. Converting from Christianity to Islam brought considerable advantages, including access to Ottoman trade networks, bureaucratic positions and the army. As a result many Albanians came to serve in the elite Janissary and the administrative Devşirme system. Among these were important historical figures, including Iljaz Hoxha, Hamza Kastrioti, Davud Pasha, Zağanos Pasha, Köprülü Mehmed Pasha (head of the Köprülü family of Grand Viziers), the Bushati family, Sulejman Pasha, Edhem Pasha, Nezim Frakulla, Ali Pasha of Tepelena, Haxhi Shekreti, Hasan Zyko Kamberi, Ali Pasha of Gucia, Mehmet Ali ruler of Egypt^[39] and Emin Pasha^{[citation needed]}.

Many Albanians gained prominent positions in the Ottoman government, Albanians highly active during the Ottoman era and leaders such as Ali Pasha of Tepelena might have aided Husein Gradaščević. The Albanians proved generally faithful to Ottoman rule following the end of the resistance led by Skanderbeg, and accepted Islam more easily than their neighbors.^[40] No fewer than 42 Grand Viziers of the Empire were of Albanian descent. The Ottoman period also saw the rising of semi-autonomous Albanian ruled Pashaliks and Albanians were also an important part of the Ottoman army and Ottoman administration like the case of Köprülü family. Albania would remain a part of the Ottoman Empire as the provinces of Scutari, Monastir and Janina until 1912.

[edit]Birth of nationalism

Hamza Kazazi, leader of the1833-1839 revolts.

Main articles: National awakening and the birth of Albania and League of Prizren

Further information: Albanian nationalism and Albanian Revolt of 1910

By the 1870s, the Sublime Porte's reforms aimed at checking the Ottoman Empire's disintegration had clearly failed. The image of the "Turkish yoke" had become fixed in the nationalist mythologies and psyches of the empire's Balkan peoples, and their march toward independence quickened. TheAlbanians, because of the higher degree of Islamic influence, their internal social divisions, and the fear that they would lose their Albanian-populated lands to the emerging Balkan states—Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, and Greece—were the last of the Balkan peoples to desire division from the Ottoman Empire.^[41]

However, in the 19th century after the fall of the Albanian pashaliks and the Massacre of the Albanian Beys an Albanian National Awakening took place and many revolts against the Ottoman Empire were organized. Such revolts included the Albanian Revolts of 1833-1839, the Revolt of 1843-44, and the Revolt of 1847. A culmination of the Albanian National Awakening were the League of Prizren (1878–1881, with the backing of sultanAbdulhamid II) and the League of Peja, but they were unsuccessful to an Albanian independence, which occurred only in 1912, through the Albanian Declaration of Independence.

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  Ethnographic map of the Balkans in the end of the 19th century
 
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  Ethnographic map of the Balkans by G. Lejean, 1861
 
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  Ethnic composition map of the Balkans by the pro-Greek ^[42]

Byzantine rule and barbarian invasions

Byzantine rule and barbarian invasions

Epirus Nova, 400 AD

After the region fell to the Romans in 168 BC it became part of Epirus nova that was in turn part of the Roman province of Macedonia. Later it was part of provinces of the Byzantine empire called Themes.

When the Roman Empire was divided into East and West in 395, the territories of modern Albania became part of the Byzantine Empire. Beginning in the first decades of Byzantine rule (until 461), the region suffered devastating raids by Visigoths, Huns, and Ostrogoths. In the 6th and 7th centuries, the region experienced an influx of Slavs.

The new administrative system of the themes, or military provinces created by the Byzantine Empire, contributed to the eventual rise of feudalism in Albania, as peasant soldiers who served military lords became serfs on their landed estates. Among the leading families of the Albanian feudal nobility were the Balsha, Thopia, Shpata, Muzaka, Dukagjini and Kastrioti. The first three of these rose to become rulers of principalities were vassals of the Byzantine Empire, maintaining a partial local autonomy from the Byzantine Empire. Many Albanians converted to the Roman Catholic Church at that period.

In the first decades under Byzantine rule (until 461), Epirus nova suffered the devastation of raids by Visigoths, Huns, and Ostrogoths. Not long after these barbarian invaders swept through the Balkans, the Slavs appeared. Between the 6th and 8th centuries they settled in Roman territories. In the 4th century, barbarian tribes began to prey upon the Roman Empire. The Germanic Goths and Asiatic Huns were the first to arrive, invading in mid-century; the Avars attacked in AD 570; and the Croatian tribes invaded in the early 7th century. In general, the invaders destroyed or weakened Roman andByzantine cultural centers in the lands that would become Albania.^[31]

Albania under the Bulgarian Empire

Location of Arbanon in 11th century. According to Ducellier the castle of Petrelawas the access point to the region known with this name^[32] On the location of Arbanon see also ^[33]

In the mid 9th century most of eastern Albania became part of the Bulgarian Empire. The area, known as Kutmichevitsa, became an important Bulgarian cultural center in 10th century with many thriving towns such as Devol, Glavinitsa (Ballsh) and Belgrad (Berat). When the Byzantines managed to conquer the First Bulgarian Empire the fortresses in eastern Albania were some of the last Bulgarian strongholds to be submitted by the Byzantines. Later the region was recovered by the Second Bulgarian Empire.

The first undisputed mention of Albanians in the historical record is attested in Byzantine source for the first time in 1079-1080, in a work titledHistory by Byzantine historian Michael Attaliates, who referred to the Albanoi as having taken part in a revolt against Constantinople in 1043 and to the Arbanitai as subjects of the duke of Dyrrachium. It is disputed, however, whether the "Albanoi" of the events of 1043 refers to Albanians in an ethnic sense or whether "Albanoi" is a reference to Normans from Sicily under an archaic name (there was also tribe of Italy by the name of "Albanoi").^[34] However a later reference to Albanians from the same Attaliates, regarding the participation of Albanians in a rebellion around 1078, is undisputed.^[35]

It was in 1190, when a local Albanian noble called Progon created the Principality of Arbër, with its capital at Krujë. After the fall of Progon Dynasty in 1216, the principality came under Grigor Kamona and Gulam of Albania. Finally the Principality was dissolved on 1255.

In 1271 Charles of Anjou after he captured Durrës from Despotate of Epirus, created the Kingdom of Albania. In 14th century a number ofAlbanian principalities were created.

Late Middle Ages

Albanian migrations in 1300-1350 AD

After the weakening of the Byzantine Empire and the Bulgarian Empire in the middle and late 13th century, most of the Albanian territory became part of the Serbian state. Firstly, as part of Rashkaand later as part of Serbian Empire. The southern part was governed by the semi-independent, Serbian ruled Despotate of Epiros. Along with the Serbian ruled Albania, there was also an Albanianstate, the Principality of Arbër, and later the Kingdom of Albania. These three entities, covers the history of Albania between the late 12th century, until the half of the 14th century, when Albanian Principalities were created through all Albania.

Serbian Empire

The Serbs occupied parts of northern and eastern Albania toward the end of the 12th century.

Principality of Arbër

In 1190 the first Albanian medieval state, the Principality of Arbër was founded by the House of Progon with the city of Krujë as the capital. Progoni was succeeded by Gjini and then by Dhimiter.

In 1204, after Western crusaders sacked Constantinople, Venice won nominal control over Albania and the Epirus region of northern Greece and took possession of Durrës. During the Serbian Occupation the first Albanian state of the Middle Ages was created.^{[citation needed]}

Anjou Kingdom of Albania

Main article: Kingdom of Albania

After the fall of the Principality of Arber in territories captured by the Despotate of Epiros, the Kingdom of Albania was established by Charles of Anjou. He took the title of King of Albaniain February, 1272.

The Albanian principalities and the League of Lezhë

Main articles: Albanian principalities and League of Lezhë

In 1368 the Kingdom of Albania was disestablished and several Albanian principalities were formed including the Princedom of Albania, the Principality of Dukagjini, the Principality of Kastrioti, the Principality of Gjirokastër and the Muzakaj Principality of Berat.

In the late 14th and the early 15th century the Ottoman Empire conquered parts of Albania.

The Albanians regained control of their territories in 1444 when the League of Lezhë was established, initially under the rule of George Kastrioti and after his death it was led by Lekë Dukagjini.

In the Middle Ages, the name Arberia (see Origin and history of the name Albania) began to be increasingly applied to the region now comprising the nation of Albania.